Grading

This is a test bunny--I have a couple that go around during exams. A very nice lady makes them for me.

Young adults clutch them tightly when they are stressed. I used to think they were talismans, but now realize I worry more about kids doing well on exams than many of them do.

Many just want to pass.

My test bunnies make stressed students feel better. I'm glad that they feel better, but wonder how hundreds of tests over much of their waking hours affects how they view the world.

Storytelling

Physical concepts are free creations of the human mind and are not, however it may seem, uniquely determined by the physical world

Albert Einstein

It is easy to teach science badly, or what passes as science anyway.

With textbooks morphing into monoliths, immutable facts are drilled into the cranium. While a few pages of the text may allude to classic experiments, they are presented like ancient battles in a history book--the experiments matter for their contribution to the scientific database, not for the opportunities in thinking they present the student. As the database increases, we are obliged to increase the diameter of the craniotomies drilled into our students' skulls.

I stumbled onto a wonderful site, What is Science? while googling, natch, "What is science?"--it looks like a simple question. Seems a science teacher ought to have a handle on the word "science."

I wandered around the site while pretending to do lesson plans, and found a lovely essay that argues that the essence of science is storytelling. The article is co-authored by Barry Bickmore (geochemistry) and David Grandy (philosophy), faculty members at BYU.

Common law

In common law legal systems, the law is created and/or refined by judges on a case-by-case basis. When there is no authoritative statement of the law, common law judges have the authority and duty to "make" law by creating precedent.[1] The body of precedent is called "common law" and it binds future decisions. In future cases, when parties disagree on what the law is, an "ideal" common law court looks to past precedential decisions of relevant courts. If a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision (this principle is known as stare decisis). If, however, the court finds that the current dispute is fundamentally distinct from all previous cases, it will resolve the matter itself, with reference to general legal guidelines. Thereafter, the new decision becomes precedent, and will bind future courts under the principle of stare decisis.

In practice, common law systems are considerably more complicated than the "ideal" system described above. The decisions of a court are binding only in a particular jurisdiction, and even within a given jurisdiction, some courts have more power than others. For example, in most jurisdictions, decisions by appellate courts are binding on lower courts in the same jurisdiction and on future decisions of the same appellate court, but decisions of non-appellate courts are only non-binding persuasive authority. Interactions between constitutional law, common law, statutory law and regulatory law also give rise to considerable complexity. However, stare decisis, the principle that similar cases should be decided according to similar rules, lies at the heart of all common law systems.

Common law legal systems are in widespread use, particularly in those nations which trace their legal heritage to England, including the United Kingdom, the United States, most of Canada, and other former colonies of the British Empire.

Primary definitions

There are three main connotations for to the term common law, and several historical ones worth mentioning:

1. Common law as opposed to statutory law and regulatory law: This connotation distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. For example, in most areas of law in most jurisdictions in the United States, there are "statutes" enacted by a legislature, "regulations" promulgated by executive branch agencies pursuant to a delegation of rule-making authority from a legislature, and common law or "case law", i.e. decisions issued by courts (or quasi-judicial tribunals within agencies). This first connotation can be further differentiated, into (a) laws that arise purely from the common law with no express statutory authority, e.g. most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most of contract law and the law of torts, and (b) decisions that discuss and decide the fine boundaries and distinctions in written laws promulgated by other bodies, such as the Constitution, statutes and regulations. See statutory law and non-statutory law.

2. Common law legal systems as opposed to civil law legal systems: This connotation differentiates "common law" jurisdictions and legal systems from "civil law" or "code" jurisdictions. Common law systems place great weight on court decisions, which are considered "law" just as are statutes. By contrast, in civil law jurisdictions (the legal tradition that prevails in most of the world), judicial precedent is given less weight, and contributions by scholars are given more. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges from pronouncing the law.[2]

3. Law as opposed to equity: This connotation differentiates "common law" (or just "law") from "equity". Before 1873, England had two parallel court systems, courts of "law" that could only award money damages and recognized only the legal owner of property, and courts of "equity" that could issue injunctive relief and recognized trusts of property. Most United States jurisdictions have merged the two courts, with exceptions noted in "Common Law Systems," below. Additionally, even before the separate courts were merged together, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity (though under potentially different laws of procedure). Even so, the distinction between law and equity remains important in (a) categorising and prioritizing rights to property, (b) determining whether the Seventh Amendment's right to a jury trial applies (a determination of a fact necessary to resolution of a "common law" claim[3]) or whether the issue may be decided by a judge (issues of what the law is, and all issues relating to equity), and (c) in the principles that apply to the grant of equitable remedies by the courts.

4. Historical uses: In addition, there are several historical uses of the term that provide some background as to its meaning. The English Court of Common Pleas dealt with lawsuits in which the king had no interest, i.e. between commoners. Additionally, from at least the 11th century and continuing for several centuries after that, there were several different circuits in the royal court system, served by itinerant judges who would travel from town to town dispensing the King's justice. The term "common law" was used to describe the law held in common between the circuits and the different stops in each circuit. The more widely a particular law was recognized, the more weight it held, whereas purely local customs were generally subordinate to law recognized in a plurality of jurisdictions. These definitions are archaic, their relevance having dissipated with the development of the English legal system over the centuries, but they do explain the origin of the term.

Basic principles of common law

Common law adjudication

In a common law jurisdiction, several stages of research and analysis are required to determine what "the law is" in a given situation. First, one must ascertain the facts. Then, one must locate any relevant statutes and cases. Then one must extract the principles, analogies and statements by various courts of what they consider important to determine how the next court is likely to rule on the facts of the present case. Later decisions, and decisions of higher courts or legislatures carry more weight than earlier cases and those of lower courts. Finally, one integrates all the lines drawn and reasons given, and determines what "the law is". Then, one applies that law to the facts.

The common law is more malleable than statutory law. First, common law courts are not absolutely bound by precedent, but can (when extraordinarily good reason is shown) reinterpret and revise the law, without legislative intervention, to adapt to new trends in political, legal and social philosophy. Second, the common law evolves through a series of gradual steps, that gradually works out all the details, so that over a decade or more, the law can change substantially but without a sharp break, thereby reducing disruptive effects. In contrast, the legislative process is very difficult to get started: legislatures do not act until a situation is totally intolerable. Because of this, legislative changes tend to be large, jarring and disruptive (either positively or negatively).

Interaction of statute and common law

In common law legal systems (connotation 2), the common law (connotation 1) is crucial to understanding almost all important areas of law. For example, in England and Wales and in most states of the United States, the basic laws of contracts, torts and property do not exist in statute, but only in common law (though there may be isolated modifications enacted by statute). In almost all areas of the law (even those where there is a statutory framework, such as contracts for the sale of goods[4], or the criminal law[5]), other written laws generally give only terse statements of general principle, and the fine boundaries and definitions exist only in the common law (connotation 1). To find out what the precise law is that applies to a particular set of facts, one has to locate precedential decisions on the topic, and reason from those decisions by analogy. To consider but one example, the First Amendment to the United States Constitution states "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof" – but interpretation (that is, determining the fine boundaries, and resolving the tension between the "establishment" and "free exercise" clauses) of each of the important terms was delegated by Article III of the Constitution to the judicial branch[6], so that the current legal boundaries of the Constitutional text can only be determined by consulting the common law.

In common law jurisdictions, legislatures operate under the assumption that statutes will be interpreted against the backdrop of the pre-existing common law case law and custom, and so may leave a number of things unsaid. For example, in most U.S. states, the criminal statutes are primarily codification of pre-existing common law. (Codification is the process of enacting a statute that collects and restates pre-existing law in a single document - when that pre-existing law is common law, the common law remains relevant to the interpretation of these statutes.) In reliance on this assumption, modern statutes often leave a number of terms and fine distinctions unstated -- for example, a statute might be very brief, leaving the precise definition of terms unstated, under the assumption that these fine distinctions will be inherited from pre-existing common law. For this reason, even today American law schools teach the common law of crime as practised in England in 1789, because the backdrop of centuries-old English common law is necessary to interpret and fully understand the literal words of the modern criminal statute.

By contrast to the statutory codifications of common law, some laws are purely statutory, and may create a new cause of action beyond the common law. An example is the tort of wrongful death, which allows certain persons, usually a spouse, child or estate, to sue for damages on behalf of the deceased. There is no such tort in English common law; thus, any jurisdiction that lacks a wrongful death statute will not allow a lawsuit for the wrongful death of a loved one. Where a wrongful death statute exists, the compensation or other remedy available is limited to the remedy specified in the statute (typically, an upper limit on the amount of damages). Courts generally interpret statutes that create new causes of action narrowly – that is, limited to their precise terms – because the courts generally recognize the legislature as being supreme in deciding the reach of judge-made law unless such statute should violate some "second order" constitutional law provision (compare judicial activism).

Where a tort is rooted in common law, then all damages traditionally recognized historically for that tort may be sued for, whether or not there is mention of those damages in the current statutory law. For instance, a person who sustains bodily injury through the negligence of another may sue for medical costs, pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning capacity, mental and/or emotional distress, loss of quality of life, disfigurement and more. These damages need not be set forth in statute as they already exist in the tradition of common law. However, without a wrongful death statute, most of them are extinguished upon death.

The role of treatises and academic writings - one of several contrasts between common law and civil law

In many subject matter areas, legal treatises compile common law decisions and state overarching principles that, in the author's opinion, explain the results of the cases. However, treatises are not the law, and lawyers and judges tend to use these treatises as only "finding aids" to locate the relevant cases.

This is one of the "cultural" differences between common law and civil law jurisdictions (connotation 2): in civil law jurisdictions, the writings of law professors are given significant weight by courts. In common law jurisdictions, scholarly work is seldom cited as authority for what the law is.[7] When common law courts rely on scholarly work, it is almost always only for factual findings or for policy justification, but the court's legal conclusion is reached through analysis of relevant statutes and common law, seldom scholarly commentary.

Common law as a foundation for commercial economies

This reliance on judicial opinion is a strength of common law systems, and is a significant contributor to the robust commercial systems in the United Kingdom and United States. Because there is common law to give reasonably precise guidance on almost every issue, parties (especially commercial parties) can predict whether a proposed course of action is likely to be lawful or unlawful. This ability to predict gives more freedom to come close to the boundaries of the law.[8] For example, many commercial contracts are more economically efficient, and create greater wealth, because the parties know ahead of time that the proposed arrangement, perhaps close to the line, is almost certainly legal. Newspapers, taxpayer-funded entities with some religious affiliation, and political parties can obtain fairly clear guidance on the boundaries within which their freedom of expression rights apply. In contrast, in non-common-law countries, fine questions of law are redetermined anew each time they arise, making consistency and prediction more difficult. Thus, in jurisdictions that do not have a strong allegiance to a large body of precedent, parties have less a priori guidance must often leave a bigger "safety margin" of unexploited opportunities.

History of the common law

England before 1600

Common law originally developed under the inquisitorial system in England during the 12th and 13th centuries,[9] as the collective judicial decisions that were based in tradition, custom and precedent. Such forms of legal institutions and culture bear resemblance to those which existed historically in continental Europe and other societies where precedent and custom have at times played a substantial role in the legal process, including Germanic law recorded in Roman historical chronicles. The form of reasoning used in common law is known as casuistry or case-based reasoning. The common law, as applied in civil cases (as distinct from criminal cases), was devised as a means of compensating someone for wrongful acts known as torts, including both intentional torts and torts caused by negligence, and as developing the body of law recognizing and regulating contracts. The type of procedure practiced in common law courts is known as the adversarial system; this is also a development of the common law.

Before the institutional stability imposed on England by William the Conqueror in 1066, English residents, like those of many other societies, particularly the Germanic cultures of continental Europe, were governed by unwritten local customs that varied from community to community and were enforced in often arbitrary fashion. For example, courts generally consisted of informal public assemblies that weighed conflicting claims in a case and, if unable to reach a decision, might require an accused to test guilt or innocence by carrying a red-hot iron or snatching a stone from a cauldron of boiling water or some other "test" of veracity (trial by ordeal). If the defendant's wound healed within a prescribed period, he was set free as innocent; if not, execution usually followed.

In 1154, Henry II became the first Plantagenet king. Among many achievements, Henry institutionalized common law by creating a unified system of law "common" to the country through incorporating and elevating local custom to the national, ending local control and peculiarities, eliminating arbitrary remedies and reinstating a jury system – citizens sworn on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil claims. The jury reached its verdict through evaluating common local knowledge, not necessarily through the presentation of evidence, a distinguishing factor from today's civil and criminal court systems.

Henry II developed the practice of sending judges from his own central court to hear the various disputes throughout the country. His judges would resolve disputes on an ad hoc basis according to what they interpreted the customs to be. The king's judges would then return to London and often discuss their cases and the decisions they made with the other judges. These decisions would be recorded and filed. In time, a rule, known as stare decisis (also commonly known as precedent) developed, which is where a judge would be bound to follow the decision of an earlier judge; he was required to adopt the earlier judge's interpretation of the law and apply the same principles promulgated by that earlier judge if the two cases had similar facts to one another. By this system of precedent, decisions 'stuck' and became ossified, and so the pre-Norman system of disparate local customs was replaced by an elaborate and consistent system of laws that was common throughout the whole country, hence the name, "common law."

Henry II's creation of a powerful and unified court system, which curbed somewhat the power of canonical (church) courts, brought him (and England) into conflict with the church, most famously with Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Eventually, Becket was murdered inside Canterbury Cathedral by four knights who believed themselves to be acting on Henry's behalf. Whether Henry actually intended to bring about the assassination of Becket is doubtful, but there is no question that at the time of the murder, the two men were embroiled in a bitter dispute regarding the power of Royal Courts to exercise jurisdiction over former clergymen. The murder of the Archbishop, who was immediately venerated as a martyr and later as a saint, gave rise to a wave of popular outrage against the King. Henry was forced to repeal the disputed laws and to abandon his efforts to hold church members accountable for secular crimes (see also Constitutions of Clarendon).

In spite of this setback, judge-made common law endured for centuries as the primary source of criminal and civil laws throughout the realm. Later, after Parliament acquired legislative powers, statutory law began to limit the scope of the common law in some areas. Even today, however, common law retains its status as an essential element of the British legal system.

The Common Law in the colonies and commonwealth – Reception statutes

Following the American Revolution, one of the first legislative acts undertaken by each of the newly independent states was to adopt "reception statutes" that gave legal effect to the existing body of English Common Law.[10] Some states enacted reception statutes as legislative statutes, while other states received the English common law through provisions of the state's constitution.

For example, the New York Constitution of 1777[11] provides that:
“ [S]uch parts of the common law of England, and of the statute law of England and Great Britain, and of the acts of the legislature of the colony of New York, as together did form the law of the said colony on the 19th day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, shall be and continue the law of this State, subject to such alterations and provisions as the legislature of this State shall, from time to time, make concerning the same. ”

Alexander Hamilton emphasized in The Federalist that this New York constitutional provision expressly made the common law subject “to such alterations and provisions as the legislature shall from time to time make concerning the same.”[12] Thus, even when reception was effected by a constitution[13], the common law was still subject to alteration by a legislature's statute.

The Northwest Ordinance, which was approved by the Congress of the Confederation in 1787, guaranteed "judicial proceedings according to the course of the common law." Nathan Dane, the primary author of the Northwest Ordinance, viewed this provision as a default mechanism in the event that federal or territorial statutes were silent about a particular matter; he wrote that if "a statute makes an offence, and is silent as to the mode of trial, it shall be by jury, according to the course of the common law.”[14] In effect, the provision operated as a reception statute, giving legal authority to the established common law in the vast territories where no states had yet been established.

Over time, as new states were formed from federal territories, these territorial reception statutes became obsolete and were re-enacted as state laws. For example, a reception statute enacted by legislation in the state of Washington requires that "[t]he common law, so far as it is not inconsistent with the Constitution and laws of the United States, or of the state of Washington nor incompatible with the institutions and condition of society in this state, shall be the rule of decision in all the courts of this state."[15] In this way, the common law was eventually incorporated into the legal systems of every state except Louisiana (which inherited its civil law system from France).

A similar statute exists in Article 8 of the Basic Law of Hong Kong.

1870 through 20th Century - Merger of Law and Equity

As early as the 15th century, it became the practice that litigants who felt they had been cheated by the common-law system would petition the King in person. For example, they might argue that an award of damages (at common law) was not sufficient redress for a trespasser occupying their land, and instead request that the trespasser be evicted. From this developed the system of equity, administered by the Lord Chancellor, in the courts of chancery. By their nature, equity and law were frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently continue for years as one court countermanded the other, even though it was established by the 17th century that equity should prevail. A famous example is the fictional case of Jarndyce and Jarndyce in Bleak House, by Charles Dickens.

In England, courts of law and equity were combined by the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, with equity being supreme in case of conflict.

In the United States, parallel systems of law (providing money damages, heard by a jury if either party so requests) and equity (fashioning a remedy to fit the situation, including injunctive relief, heard by a judge) survived well into the 20th century. The United States federal courts procedurally separated law and equity: the same judges could hear either kind of case, but a given case could only pursue causes in law or in equity, and the two kinds of cases proceeded under different procedural rules. This became problematic when a given case required both money damages and injunctive relief. In 1937, the new Federal Rules of Civil Procedure combined law and equity into one form of action, the "civil action." Fed.R.Civ.P. 2. The distinction survives to the extent that issues that were "common law" as of 1791 (the date of adoption of the Seventh Amendment) are still subject to the right of either party to request a jury, and "equity" issues are decided by a judge.

Delaware and New Jersey still have separate courts of law and equity, for example, the Court of Chancery. In many states there are separate divisions for law and equity within one court.

Common law legal systems
Common law Mixed system using common law
Common law Mixed system using common law

The common law constitutes the basis of the legal systems of: England and Wales, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, federal law in the United States and the states' laws (except Louisiana), federal law in Canada and the provinces' laws (except Quebec civil law), Australia (both federal and individual states), New Zealand, South Africa, India, Malaysia, Brunei, Pakistan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and many other generally English-speaking countries or Commonwealth countries (except Malta and Scotland and the Canadian province of Quebec)). Essentially, every country which has been colonised at some time by England, Great Britain, or the United Kingdom uses common law except those that had been formerly colonised by other nations, such as Quebec (which follows French law to some extent), South Africa and Sri Lanka (which follow Roman Dutch law), where the prior civil law system was retained to respect the civil rights of the local colonists. India's system of common law is also a mixture of English law and the local Hindu law, except in the state of Goa which retains the Portuguese civil code. Nicaragua's legal system also is a mixture of the English Common Law and the Civil Law through the influence of British administration of the Eastern half of the country from the mid-1600's until about 1905, the William Walker period from about 1855 through 1857, USA interventions/occupations during the period from 1909 to 1933, the influence of USA institutions during the Somoza administrations (1933 through 1979) and the considerable importation between 1979 and the present of USA culture and institutions.

The main alternative to the common law system is the civil law system, which is used in Continental Europe, and most of the rest of the world. The former Soviet Bloc and other Socialist countries used a Socialist law system.

The opposition between civil law and common law legal systems has become increasingly blurred, with the growing importance of jurisprudence (almost like case law but in name) in civil law countries, and the growing importance of statute law and codes in common law countries (for example, in matters of criminal law, commercial law (the Uniform Commercial Code in the early 1960s) and procedure (the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in the 1930s and the Federal Rules of Evidence in the 1970s)).

Scotland is often said to use the civil law system but in fact it has a unique system that combines elements of an uncodified civil law dating back to the Corpus Juris Civilis with an element of common law long predating the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 (see Legal institutions of Scotland in the High Middle Ages). Scots common law differs in that the use of precedents is subject to the courts seeking to discover the principle which justifies a law rather than to search for an example as a precedent and that the principles of natural justice and fairness have always formed a source of Scots Law. Comparable pluralistic (or 'mixed') legal systems operate in Quebec, Louisiana and South Africa.

The U.S. state of California has a system based on common law, but it has codified the law in the manner of the civil law jurisdictions. The reason for the enactment of the codes in California in the nineteenth century was to replace a pre-existing system based on Spanish civil law with a system based on common law, similar to that in most other states. California and a number of other Western states, however, have retained the concept of community property derived from civil law. The California courts have treated portions of the codes as an extension of the common-law tradition, subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge-made common law. (Most notably, in the case Li v. Yellow Cab Co., 13 Cal.3d 804 (1975), the California Supreme Court adopted the principle of comparative negligence in the face of a California Civil Code provision codifying the traditional common-law doctrine of contributory negligence.)

The state of New York, which also has a civil law history from its Dutch colonial days, also began a codification of its laws in the 19th century. The only part of this codification process that was considered complete is known as the Field Code applying to civil procedure. The original colony of New Netherlands was settled by the Dutch and the law was also Dutch. When the English captured pre-existing colonies they continued to allow the local settlers to keep their civil law. However, the Dutch settlers revolted against the English and the colony was recaptured by the Dutch. When the English finally regained control of New Netherland -- as a punishment unique in the history of the British Empire -- they forced the English common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch. This was problematic as the patroon system of land holding, based on the feudal system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was abolished in the mid-nineteenth century. The influence of Roman Dutch law continued in the colony well into the late nineteenth century. The codification of a law of general obligations shows how remnants of the civil law tradition in New York continued on from the Dutch days.

The United States federal government (as opposed to the states) has a variant on a common law system. United States federal courts only act as interpreters of statutes and the constitution (to elaborate and precisely define the broad language, connotation 1(b) above), but, unlike state courts, do not act as an independent source of common law (connotation 1(a) above). Before 1938, the federal courts, like almost all other common law courts, decided the law on any issue where the relevant legislature (either the U.S. Congress or state legislature, depending on the issue), had not acted, by looking to courts in the same system, that is, other federal courts, even on issues of state law, and even where there was no express grant of authority from Congress or the Constitution. In 1938, the U.S. Supreme Court in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins 304 U.S. 64, 78 (1938), overruled earlier precedent[16], and held "There is no federal general common law," thus confining the federal courts to act only as interpreters of law originating elsewhere. Post-1938, federal courts deciding issues that arise under state law are required to defer to state court interpretations of state statutes, or reason what a state's highest court would rule if presented with the issue, or to certify the question to the state's highest court for resolution. Later courts have limited Erie slightly, to create a few situations where United States federal courts are permitted to create federal common law rules without express statutory authority, for example, where a federal rule of decision is necessary to protect uniquely federal interests. See, e.g., Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States, 318 U.S. 363 (1943) (giving federal courts the authority to fashion common law rules with respect to issues of federal power, in this case negotiable instruments backed by the federal government); Texas Industries v. Radcliff, 451 U.S. 630 (1981) (without an express grant of statutory authority, federal courts cannot create rules of intuitive justice, for example, a right to contribution from co-conspirators); see also International News Service v. Associated Press, 248 U.S. 215 (1918) (creating a cause of action for misappropriation of "hot news" that lacks any statutory grounding, but that is one of the handful of federal common law actions that survives today). Except on Constitutional issues, Congress is free to legislatively overrule federal courts' common law.[17]

Works on the common law
William Blackstone as illustrated in his Commentaries on the Laws of England.
William Blackstone as illustrated in his Commentaries on the Laws of England.

The definitive historical treatise on the common law is Commentaries on the Laws of England, written by Sir William Blackstone and first published in 1765 - 1769. Since 1979 a facsimile edition of that first edition has been available in four paper-bound volumes. Today it has been superseded in the English part of the United Kingdom by Halsbury's Laws of England that covers both common and statutory English law.

While he was still on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and before being named to the U.S. Supreme Court, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. published a short volume called The Common Law which remains a classic in the field. Unlike Blackstone and the Restatements, Holmes' book only briefly discusses what the law is; rather, Holmes describes the common law process.

In the United States, Restatements of various subject matter areas (Contracts, Torts, Judgments, etc.), edited by the American Law Institute, collect the common law for the area. The ALI Restatements are often cited by American courts and lawyers for propositions of uncodified common law, and are considered highly-persuasive authority, just below binding precedential decisions. The Corpus Juris Secundum is an encyclopedia whose main content is a compendium of the common law and its variations throughout the various state jurisdictions.

Scots common law covers matters including murder and theft, and has sources in custom, in legal writings and previous court decisions. The legal writings used are called Institutional Texts and come mostly from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Examples include Craig, Jus Feudale (1655) and Stair, The Institutions of the Law of Scotland (1681).

Footnotes

1. ^ Marbury v Madison, 5 U.S. 137 (1803) ("It is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. Those who apply the rule to particular cases, must of necessity expound and interpret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the courts must decide on the operation of each.")
2. ^ The differences between common and civil law jurisdictions are gradually becoming smaller, as common law jurisdictions enact statutes that cover areas formerly left to the common law, and civil law courts give increasing weight to precedent. Srl CILFIT and Lanificio di Gavardo SpA v Ministry of Health, Corte suprema di Cassazione, Italy, 1982), in which the European Court of Justice holds that questions it has already answered need not be resubmitted, see ¶ 4. This brought in a distinctly common law principle into an essentially civil law jurisdiction. As the ECJ continues to follow this precedent and assumes that its rulings have precedential value, the distance between civil law and common law jurisdictions are shrinking.
3. ^ "In Suits at common law ... the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law."
4. ^ E.g., Uniform Commercial Code, Article 2, on Contracts for the Sales of Goods
5. ^ Model Penal Code as adopted in several states, for example, New York's Penal Law
6. ^ Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602, 91 S.Ct. 2125, 29 L.Ed.2d 745 (1971) (a government-sponsored message violates the Establishment Clause if: (1) it does not have a secular purpose; (2) its principal or primary effect advances or inhibits religion; or (3) it creates an excessive entanglement of the government with religion.)
7. ^ At least in the U.S., practicing lawyers tend to use "law professor" or "law review article" as a pejorative to describe a person or work that is insufficiently grounded in reality or practicality - every young lawyer is admonished repeatedly by senior lawyers not to write "law review articles."
8. ^ See, e.g., Yeo Tiong Min, "A Note on Some Differences in English Law, New York Law, and Singapore Law" (2006). This is not to say that common law is better in every situation. For example, civil law can be clearer than case law when the legislature has had the foresight and diligence to address the precise set of applicable facts in a particular situation. For that reason, civil law statutes tend to be somewhat more detailed than statutes written by common law legislatures – but, conversely, that tends to make the statute more difficult to read. As a practical matter, no civil law legislature can ever address the full spectrum of factual possibilities in the breadth, depth and detail of the case law of the common law courts of even a smaller jurisdiction.
9. ^ See The Development of Crime in Early English Society, Clarence Ray Jeffery, The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, Vol. 47, No. 6. (Mar. - Apr., 1957), pp. 647-666.
10. ^ Glenn Lammi and James Chang, "Michigan High Court Ruling Offers Positive Guidance on Challenges to Tort Reform Laws" (December 17, 2004).
11. ^ New York Constitution of 1777 via Avalon Project at Yale Law School.
12. ^ Alexander Hamilton, Federalist 84 (1788).
13. ^ Ironically, one of the first acts of many of the newly-independent states was to give effect to the law of a foreign sovereign.
14. ^ Nathan Dane, 6 General Abridgment and Digest of American Law §182, art. 5, 230 (Cummings, Hilliard & Co. 1823).
15. ^ Washington Legal Foundation v. Legal Foundation of Washington, 271 F.3d 835 (9th Cir. 2001).
16. ^ Swift v. Tyson, 41 U.S. 1 (1842). In Swift, the United States Supreme Court had held that federal courts hearing cases brought under their diversity jurisdiction (allowing them to hear cases between parties from different states) had to apply the statutory law of the states, but not the common law developed by state courts. Instead, the Supreme Court permitted the federal courts to make their own common law based on general principles of law. Erie v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 (1938). Erie over-ruled Swift v. Tyson, and instead held that federal courts exercising diversity jurisdiction had to use all of the same substantive laws as the courts of the states in which they were located. As the Erie Court put it, there is no "general federal common law", the key word here being general. This history is elaborated in federal common law.
17. ^ Milwaukee v. Illinois, 451 U.S. 304 (1981)

febrile convulsion

A febrile seizure, also known as a fever fit or febrile convulsion is a generalized convulsion caused by elevated body temperature. They most commonly occur in children below the age of three and should not be diagnosed in children under the age of 6 months or over the age of 6 years. In many cases, the first sign of fever is the onset of the seizure. It has been theorized that the seizure is triggered by the rapidity of the rise in temperature, rather than the actual temperature reached.

Febrile seizures represent the meeting point between a low seizure threshold (genetically and age determined) - some children have a greater tendency to have a seizure under certain circumstances - and a trigger: fever. The genetic causes of febrile seizures are still being researched. Some mutations that cause a neuronal hyperexcitability and could be responsible for febrile seizures have already been discovered.

The diagnosis is one that must be arrived at by eliminating more serious causes of seizure: in particular, meningitis and encephalitis must be ruled out. Therefore a doctor's opinion should be sought and in many cases the child would be admitted to hospital overnight for observation and/or tests. As a general rule, if the child returns to a normal state of health soon after the seizure, a nervous system infection is unlikely. Even in cases where the diagnosis is febrile seizure, doctors will try to identify and treat the source of fever. In particular, it is useful to distinguish the event as a simple febrile seizure - in which the seizure lasts less than 15 minutes, does not recur in the next 24 hours, and involves the entire body (classically a generalized tonic-clonic seizure). The complex febrile seizure is characterized by long duration, recurrence, or focus on only part of the body. The simple seizure represents the majority of cases and is considered to be less of a cause for concern than the complex. It is reassuring if the cause of seizure can indeed be determined to have been fever, as simple febrile seizures generally do not cause permanent brain injury; do not tend to recur frequently, as children tend to 'out-grow' them; and do not make the development of adult epilepsy significantly more likely (less than 3-5% which is similar to that of the general public).

Children with febrile convulsions who are destined to suffer from afebrile epileptic attacks in the future will usually exhibit the following:

* A family history of afebrile convulsions in first degree relatives (a parent or sibling)
* A pre-convulsion history of abnormal neurological signs or developmental delay
* A febrile convulsion lasting longer than 15 minutes
* A febrile convulsion with strong indications of focal features before, during or afterward.

Google adsense tips

setelah anda mencreate google adsense (lihat bahasannya di topic sebelumnya
ada beberapa tips buat yang punya site atau blog, tip tip ini hasil baca dari http://deadline.3x.ro/adsense/adsensetips.html

1. cari keyword
keyword disini bisa di dalam meta atau pun content yang anda sediakan,
isi content yang anda sediakan , kata kata didalamnya keyword bagi search engine
nah disini ada tool namanya
SEO Density Analyzer. Tool ini bisa melihat keyword apa saja yang ada dalam web anda

2. Tingkatkan/perbaiki keyword anda
dapatkan petunjuk , atau usulan dari keyword generator Overture Search Inventory atau Google Keyword Tool, dari hasil itu mulailah pilih keyword yang anda sukai dan buat content dengan keyword itu.

3. Fokus dengan tema
Pastikan site atau blog anda fokus dengan tema site atau blognya, misal site itu tentang kesehatan, fokuslah pada kesehatan jangan ada artikel artikel selain dari kesehatan, intinya site atau blog harus lah mempunyai tema

4. Buat artikel atau isi site setiap hari
Semakin banyak isi site anda , semakin banyak yang membaca, itu berarti traffic buat
anda

5. Pilih format adsense yang sesuai
ini adalah format format yang menjadi pilihan banyak orang
1. 336x280 large rectangle
2. 300x250 medium rectangle
3. 160x600 wide skyscraper

dan 468x15 horizontal ad links.

(http://newjurnal.blogspot.com)

Bagaiman menjadikan Blog sebagai Sumber uang.

Tertarik ama judul diatas ehehehe, yang pertama kali terlintas dalam pikiran saya waktu baca artikel dalam bahasa inggris, wah ngeblog bisa dapet duit, boleh juga.

Lalu saya coba coba cari referensi di internet apa sih google adsense , bahasa inggris semua ternyata, banyaknya sih. ada satu tempat buat saya tertarik site itu nama www.stevepavlina.com didalamnya ada artickel how to make money from your blog, pertama dia buka site itu cuma menghasilkan $4.12 / hari. Tapi sekarang site dia menghasilkan $200 / hari , mantepkan.

Sekarang munculkan pertanyaan pertanyaan di kepala, ini bener bisa menghasilkan uang, jawabanya benar, setelah baca puluhan referensi dari internet banyak orang yang berhasil malah ada yang menghasilkan ribuan dolar sebulan.

terus apa yang di butuhkan untuk bisa kaya gini ?
Yaa signup dulu kaliiii liat di samping kanan ada icon click aja disitu

waah langsung pada tanya nih yakin , waah ini sih iklan, wuiiit nanti dulu, tapi point saya bukan kesana, saya bikin tulisan ini buat sharing pengalaman dengan google adsense, terusin aah ya tip tipnya, masih mau baca kan, enggak klik di atas juga ok ko, namanya juga sharing

Ada hal hal penting yang enggak boleh dilupain
Gimana dapet pembaca, kalo saya saranin sih , sering sering update blognya, minimal 2 -3 kali seminggu . pasti keluar lagi nih pertanyaan blog ini aja jarang di update,hehehehhehe kalo liat blog saya yang satunya lagi http://dadan.indika.net.id bisa di liat saya active update nya

Trafic
wah yang ini penting banget asli, tapi gimana caranya, bangun traffic ? ,wakakakakak saya tanya , saya jawab sendiri deh, blog directory, link to friend, search engine submmision, unik content. Oh ya saya punya daftar daftar tempat buat daftar blogdirectory KLIK DISINI ini bukan iklan loh.

ISI
Pastiin isi blog anda punya sesuatu yang menarik dan unik
update 2-3 seminggu

AH segitu dulu deh, next blog, saya akan beberkan tip tip taro adsense yang saya translate dari bahasa inggris
oh ya nanti kalo udah punya adsense , kasih tau aku aja lewat shoutbox nanti aku bantuin deh klik klik klik nya biar dapet duiit heheheheh

Cara Mencari Uang Di Internet

Dapet uang dari internet? hmm apa mungkin? jika kita tekun dan fokus rasanya semua hal menjadi mungkin, dalam kehidupan sehari hari pun kalo kita tekun dan fokus pasti berhasil.

Mendaftarnya secara gratis, anda tidak akan diminta bayaran untuk mendaftar, jadi tidak akan berresiko, tidak seperti program program HYIP yang 99% adalah scam. jadi mengapa anda tidak mencobanya, saya ingatkan semuanya tidak instant, semua butuh kerja keras, tidak ada di dunia ini yang instant kecuali mie instant.....seharusnya anda waspada terhadap program2 yang menawarkan hasil yang instant, karena biasanya itu adalah tipuan.

Untuk itu saya menyarankan mengklik link dibawah ini saja yang InsyaAllah sudah terbukti bukan penipuan.

1. Waktu Luang

Anda dibayar dengan mengerjakan tugas-tugas yang mereka berikan. Tugas tugasnya cukup mudah seperti tell friend, Pasang banner, mengisi kuisioner dan masih banyak lagi, pokoknya mudah semua.

Komisi kita dibayar setiap bulan dengan akumulasi komisi min Rp25.000 langsung ke rekening Bank kita (se-indonesia). Tanpa harus mengurus cek atau administrasi apapun lagi.

Bukan hanya itu, kami juga memberikan komisi 10%-20% dari tugas yang diselesaikan oleh teman yang Anda ajak bergabung di WaktuLuang.

Yang paling penting daftarnya GRATIS. Tunggu apalagi Daftar Sekarang Klik disini atau Banner Waktu Luang di kolom kiri

2. The Take Internet Back

Dapet dolar dengan membaca email dari mereka. Kategori email yang mereka kirim banyak, tentang kesehatan, sport, bisnis, games, dll. Daftarnya GRATIS dan langsung dapet $10 di account anda. Pembayaran bs lewat e-gold, cek atau paypall.

Caranya :

a. Daftar dulu disini, trus reply link aktifasinya dari email anda yang didaftarkan.

b. Login di The Take Internet Back dan buka inboxnya klo ada email msk buka aja, trus konfirmasi link paling bawah email tsb untuk mengklaim email tsb dah anda baca.

Perhitungan point dan komisi mereka yang menentukan, yang jelas 1 email 1 point. Klo pingin cepet ya aja teman2 anda yang lain. 1 teman daftar, dapet 3 point.

3. Agloco

Suatu perusahaan periklanan yang legal. Memang banyak orang meragukan kebenaran dari yang satu ini. Karena menunggu giliran mendapatkan link download Viewbar mereka akibat terlalu banyaknya pendaftar baru di seluruh dunia.

Cukup lama, hampir 1 bulan. Ya walaupun begitu, pasti dapet asal sabr aja dan kita bs sambil mencari refferal. Jadi sewaktu dapet viewbar referal kita sudah banyak, tinggal meraup hasil kerjany aja.

Cara kerjanya viewbar ini menampilkan iklan jenis Text yang kita inginkan. Dan memantau waktu Online kita. Hitungannya berapa lama jam kita dan referral kita Online. Nah dari situ kita dibayar.

Yang penting GRATIS ga ada ruginya coba aja. Itung-itung ganti biaya internetan J. Coba ya klik disini

4. Adbrite dan Google Adsence

Adbrite dan Google adsense tidak jauh berbeda, kita menampilkan iklan mereka di website / blog kita atau bahkan bs di profil Friendster, yang penting support kode HTML.

5. Bux.To

Biro periklanan yang inovativa dan berskala internasional. Gratis pendaftaran. Setiap hari anda hanya membuka link-link website selama 30 detik setiap linknya. Dan anda akan dibayar $0,01 setiap website yang anda buka dan $0,01 juga untuk webstie yang dibuka oleh referal anda. Jumlah referral tidak terbatas. Pembayaran via Paypal, dengan meminta pemrosesan pembayaran terlebih dahulu. Dengan min pembayaran $10.

Berikut Ilustrasi komisi yang bisa anda dapatkan dari bux.to
>> Anda membuka 10 website perhari = $0,10
>> 20 referal anda membuka 10 website perhari = $ 2,00
>> Total komisi anda sehari = $2,10
>> Total komisi anda seminggu = $14,70
>> Total komisi anda sebulan = $63,00

(http://iq-man.blogspot.com)

Dapet uang dari internet? hmm apa mungkin? jika kita tekun dan fokus rasanya semua hal menjadi mungkin, dalam kehidupan sehari hari pun kalo kita tekun dan fokus pasti berhasil.

Untuk itu saya menyarankan mengklik link dibawah ini saja yang InsyaAllah sudah terbukti bukan penipuan.

1. Waktu Luang

Anda dibayar dengan mengerjakan tugas-tugas yang mereka berikan. Tugas tugasnya cukup mudah seperti tell friend, Pasang banner, mengisi kuisioner dan masih banyak lagi, pokoknya mudah semua.

Komisi kita dibayar setiap bulan dengan akumulasi komisi min Rp25.000 langsung ke rekening Bank kita (se-indonesia). Tanpa harus mengurus cek atau administrasi apapun lagi.

Bukan hanya itu, kami juga memberikan komisi 10%-20% dari tugas yang diselesaikan oleh teman yang Anda ajak bergabung di WaktuLuang.

Yang paling penting daftarnya GRATIS. Tunggu apalagi Daftar Sekarang Klik disini atau Banner Waktu Luang di kolom kiri

2. The Take Internet Back

Caranya :

a. Daftar dulu disini, trus reply link aktifasinya dari email anda yang didaftarkan.

b. Login di The Take Internet Back dan buka inboxnya klo ada email msk buka aja, trus konfirmasi link paling bawah email tsb untuk mengklaim email tsb dah anda baca.

Perhitungan point dan komisi mereka yang menentukan, yang jelas 1 email 1 point. Klo pingin cepet ya aja teman2 anda yang lain. 1 teman daftar, dapet 3 point.

3. Agloco

Cukup lama, hampir 1 bulan. Ya walaupun begitu, pasti dapet asal sabr aja dan kita bs sambil mencari refferal. Jadi sewaktu dapet viewbar referal kita sudah banyak, tinggal meraup hasil kerjany aja.

Cara kerjanya viewbar ini menampilkan iklan jenis Text yang kita inginkan. Dan memantau waktu Online kita. Hitungannya berapa lama jam kita dan referral kita Online. Nah dari situ kita dibayar.

Yang penting GRATIS ga ada ruginya coba aja. Itung-itung ganti biaya internetan J. Coba ya klik disini

4. Adbrite dan Google Adsence

Adbrite dan Google adsense tidak jauh berbeda, kita menampilkan iklan mereka di website / blog kita atau bahkan bs di profil Friendster, yang penting support kode HTML.

5. Bux.To

Situs2 Menarik

Suka Quiz ? Ini pasti akan sangat menarik.
http://degrees.simplenet.com/wish/quiz.html

Ingin tahu hubungan dengan Si DIA ? kalkulator cinta akan membantu !
http://www.lovecalculator.com/

Statistic Internet yang menarik 1998
http://www.zdnet.com/yil/content/mag/9901/stats.html

Anda ingin tahu kurs rupiah suatu waktu mulai tahun1990 ?
http://www.oanda.com/converter/classic

Sudah berapa orang yang sudah Online ?
http://www.nua.ie/surveys/how_many_online/index.html

Dapatkan informasi dari orang yang disebut ZDnet sebagai orang yang paling pintar di Internet
http://www.useit.com

Monitor trend lalu lintas internet untuk menentukan saat yang tepat untuk download
www.internettrafficreport.com/index.html

Harga Dollar terkini online dari Reuters
http://quotes.reuters.com/qfxd-k.html

Survey menarik dari Cybernet
http://www.cybernet.or.id/survey.htm

Exchange Rates - Currencies calculator for exchange rates using data from the Federal Reserve Bank of New York.
Kalkulator kurs menggunakan data dari BI nya Amerika

Online News & Information - A directory of newspapers from across the United States that can be read online for free. A directory of magazines, associations, libraries and employment resources. The best news and information source on the Internet.
Kumpulan situs surat kabar, majalah, asosiasi, perpustakaan dan kesempatan kerja, dari seluruh Amerika yang dapat dibaca gratis secara online.

Yahoo! Comics
Pingin hiburan ? Yahoo mengumpulkan komik populer yang diupdate tiap hari dari Dilbert, For Better or For Worse, Peanuts dan banyak lagi
http://features.yahoo.com/comics

Studyabroad.com - Comprehensive online directory of study abroad and international education. Includes college undergraduate semester, year-long and summer programs, intensive language and experiential programs plus high school and graduate study abroad.

Blue Realty - Real Estate information, homes listed for sale or rent, foreclosures, property management, relocation, licensing, real estate relationships, free relocation package and school report for anywhere in the country (http://infobelanja.hypermart.net/)

Jika anda ingin mencari uang melalui internet, anda harus tahu rahasianya

Banyak cara mencari uang. Ada cara baik dan banyak juga cara buruk. Semua tergantung kita. Yang harus selalu diingat adalah mencari uang secara baik (halal) lebih baik dan abadi. Cara tidak baik biasanya easy come easy go.

Berikut ini beberapa pedoman dalam mencari uang melalui media internet.

- Anda harus mempunyai modal. Biaya koneksi internet adalah modal tetap yang harus anda siapkan. Jika anda mendapatkan fasilitas internet gratis dari kantor, rumah, teman, atau free hotspot merupakan sebuah keuntungan bagi anda. Setidaknya fix Cost untuk koneksi internet menjadi menjadi nol.

- Anda harus memiliki Pengetahuan Dasar Komputer dan cara menggunakan aplikasi internet.

Minimal anda tahu bagaimana menyalakan sebuah komputer dengan koneksi internet. Dapat memakai sebuah program browser dan memiliki pengetahuan dasar login sebuah web. Serta memiliki sebuah alamat e-mail.

- Waktu khusus untuk koneksi dengan internet.

Keputusan untuk memiliki bisnis melalui internet berarti memutuskan diri untuk meluangkan waktu khusus untuk koneksi dengan internet. Pilihlah waktu yang sesuai dengan jadwal anda. Sebagai saran, sebaiknya anda bisa melakukan sambungan internet satu kali dalam satu hari. Paling minimal adalah anda dapat mengecek email anda setiap hari. Email ibarat rumah anda. Alamat email sama dengan alamat rumah anda di dunia maya. Tempat orang lain/rekan bisnis anda menghubungi anda di internet.

- Kemampuan dalam bahasa asing harus ditingkatkan

Kemampuan berbahasa asing terutama bahasa inggris mutlak diperlukan untuk menunjang pencarian uang melalui internet. Sebab dunia mengakui bahwa bahsa inggris adalah bahasa international. Hal ini akan memudahkan anda untuk mendapatkan informasi dan pengetahuan berbisnis di internet.

- Kemauan belajar untuk mengetahui kinerja sebuah blog/wesite.

Bila anda bukan seorang programer atau seseorang yang bergerak dibidang komputer harus mempunyai keinginan untuk tahu kerja sebuah web di internet. Tidak perlu bersusah payah belajar programming bila anda tidak memiliki waktu. Cukup tahu kinerja sebuah web sudah lebih dari cukup. Yang terpenting adalah anda dapat mengisi web dengan sebuah bisnis. Mengunakan email secara maksimal untuk kepentingan bisnis. Jiika memiliki modal financial yang cukup, berikan saja maintenance web kepada ahlinya dengan membayar mereka. Anda cukup memonitor kinerja bisnis anda dan memikirkan bisnis anda. Bika hal tersebut daoat anda lakukan sendiri, merupakan sebuah keuntungan bagi anda.

Sudah menentukan sikap untuk berbisnis di internet?

Bacalah buku-buku yang menceritakan kisah sukses berbisnis melalui internet.

Anda dapat memulai dengan program-program dibawah ini.

PROGRAM GRATIS.

· E-gold

· Paypal

· Money changer

· Free training international affiliate

· Bisnis Foto

· Amazon

· Clix Sense

· Freelancer Programmer

PROGRAM BERBAYAR

· Bisnis Iklan

· Bisnis Royalti

· Bisnis training cerdas

· Investasi egold (HYIP)

· Forex trading dengan e-gold

· Forex affiliate

Bisnis adalah pilihan. Semua tergantung anda sendiri. Masih banyak program-program penghasil uang yang tersebar di internet. Belajarlah dan kembangkan sesuai dengan minat dan kegemaran anda. Selamat berbisnis di internet! Tempat belajar gratis dari Amerika ada di sini !

Contoh pendapatan dari internet

- Check dari Google

- Bonus dari indochanger

- Pembayaran Paypal dengan bantuan Kiospay

- Pendapatan e-gold

Link-link serupa yang berusaha mencari uang melalui internet :

http://second-notebook.blogspot.com/

http://paying-loan.blogspot.com/

http://bisnisinternets.blogspot.com/

http://teleconference-services.blogspot.com/

http://grameen-bank.blogspot.com/

http://asuransi-indonesia.blogspot.com/

http://dsl600eu.blogspot.com/

http://googleboat.blogspot.com/

http://googlesea.blogspot.com/

http://kapal-fiber.blogspot.com/

http://suryatara.blogspot.com/

Nilai Sebuah Cinta

Sepi dalam CINTA, gema gitar yang dipetik melahirkan irama keluhan hati yang meresap ke lubuk sanubari. Kerana CINTA, semuanya terasa. Seni dalam CINTA mengalirkan perasaan yang menyelubungi ruang hati. Kerana segenap penjuru mahukan rindu berbening. Air mata dan CINTA tidak mampu dipisahkan; umpama aur dengan tebing. Sesekali CINTA berubah, sesekali air mata tercurah. Bila hati gelap gelita kerana CINTA yang terpisah, berderau rasa gelisah sepanjang hari. Dan malam berasa panjang, angin bertiup dirasakan teramat dingin. Saat itu segala kepasrahan hidup terucap di depan. Semua gelap dan tiada lagi dirasakan indah bakal di depani. Demikian rentak muzik menyusuri masuk ke dalam jiwa sebagai ganti penghibur sepi.

Adakah yang dimainkan oleh gitar M. Nasir itu bukan daripada sentuhan hati? Mungkin lahirnya lagu seperti Cinta Sepi, Demi Masa dan Dari Kekasih Ke Kekasih sewaktu dia dilamar kasmaran yang dahsyat. CINTA dari hati seorang berjiwa seni adalah terlalu mendalam. Maka terlahir seni dari hati yang teramat sepi.

Petikan gitar, geseran biola dan alunan suara merdu terlalu diperlukan di kala sepi dari CINTA yang berpusar ganas. Bila permainan perasaan terlalu jauh terlayang, maka alam bertukar wajah. Kita bukan lagi berada di alam yang nyata, tetapi khayalan akan lebih kuat menguasai sekitar benak minda. Segala kewarasan akan terhenti seketika dan realiti sebenar kehidupan terlupa sejenak. Alam CINTA yang ditanggung menjadikan CINTA kebuntuan memecah perjalanan hidup. Benarlah kata Azman Husin, “CINTA menjadikan seorang intelektual menjadi bodoh,” untuk menilai dalam keadaan realiti sebenar.

Malam, bulan dan bintang, adalah asas dalam kehidupan yang sentiasa berlegar harmonis di antara CINTA dan rindu, resah dan cemburu. Mungkinkah akan terjawab segala gelora resah yang mencengkam hati. Akhirnya falsafah CINTA akan terbias di puncak sepi. Di samping segala sajak dan puisi terlahir di kaki malam sebagai cara melepaskan sepi. Hanya kerana CINTA, hati manusia mampu dilembutkan. Perubahan tingkah laku juga dapat dirasakan kiranya alam CINTA telah bermula. Adakah selepas berakhirnya alam CINTA mampu mematangkan perangai dan pemikiran? Dan sekiranya kekecewaan yang dialami sudah terlupa, mungkinkah kita lebih berhati-hati dalam sesuatu yang berbentuk perasaan?

CINTA sebagai satu kemestian. Adakala CINTA itu bermula pantas sekali dan perlahan-lahan. Dari pintu hati ia berbenang dan lama kelamaan segulung kasih tersimpul erat di dalam hati. CINTA perlu dipupuk supaya sentiasa segar dan kehijauan seperti dedaun yang berkilauan disirami cahaya pagi. CINTA itu terlalu indah. Seindahnya umpama sejambak bunga cantik, berwarna-warni, segar, harum dan wangi kalau kena gubahannya. Dan bunga yang dipilih daripada jenis yang subur dan baru mekar dari kelopak. Kalaulah kita pandai menggubahnya, semakin berserilah CINTA itu. Dan kalaulah tersalah gubahannya, CINTA yang diimpikan kurang berseri dan tiada keharuman menyelubungi suasana sukma. Tak siapa sudi menghargai CINTA yang diberikan.

Kesepian menjadikan CINTA semakin mendalam. CINTA daripada gadis yang pendiam dan pemalu adalah sifat sejati. Sifat pendiam dan malu membuatkan CINTA dari hatinya mengalir untuk yang satu. CINTA seorang gadis desa penuh dengan kesetiaan dan kejujuran. Hubungan sosialnya dengan kawan-kawan yang selalu terbatas menyebabkan dia hanya memadai mengenali yang diCINTAinya. Ditambah kesunyian suasana desa yang damai, terasing dan jauh dari kekalutan kota yang sentiasa palsu penuh kepuraan CINTA.

Di celah kehidupan kampung diselubungi sepi, CINTA menjadi fokus utama dalam hati seorang remaja desa. CINTA lahir dalam hati kerana kesunyian dan kesepian seringkali mengundang kepada kerinduan. Dari kerinduan menghasilkan pelbagai penyeksaan kerinduan batin dan CINTA itu adalah suci sekiranya dibatasi landasan syariat. CINTA seorang gadis desa penuh berliku dan melalui ranjau yang berduri. Tiada apa yang dapat menghiburkan hati melainkan sekeping potret sebagai penawar. Di waktu malam, dinginnya udara, bisunya alam dari bunyian dibilas dari samar-samar cahaya bulan mengundang soal CINTA mula bermain di hati.

Tiada teman berbicara, CINTA dalam hati cukup berkecamuk. Pelbagai anggapan dan tafsiran datang berombak-ombak bersama rasa kepiluan dalam hati. Mungkinkah yang diCINTAi tidak dapat dimiliki? Dari hari ke hari, CINTA kian bersemi dalam dakapan hari sewaktu berlari. Dalam diari perasaan diluahkan demi mencari kedamaian hati. Di taman sanubari CINTA telah bersatu untuk melakar hidup di alam yang diimpikan.

CINTA gadis kota pula jarang sekali kesetiaan dihargai dan senang tawar CINTAnya. Mudah hatinya bertukar dan berubah mengikut cita rasa. Kenangan yang dibina mudah bertiup pergi seumpama debu-debu kian berterbangan. Hubungan sosial yang luas memadamkan perasaan CINTA yang satu dan secara mendalam keasyikannya. Kesetiaan jarang dihormati kerana CINTA yang satu mengheningi tiada terpaut kukuh di dalam lubuk hati. Kesibukan waktu menyekat perasaan CINTA mengalir deras dalam belahan jiwa. Malah CINTA yang lahir senang mati apabila sesuatu yang terjadi di luar dugaan. Kemuncaknya dalam perCINTAan banyak perkara boleh berlaku. Apatah lagi keadaan trend kini óne night stand’ sudah menjadi perkara biasa untuk membuktikan CINTA bila sampai ke paras kemuncaknya.

Yang pasti menjadi lumrah kegagalan dalam menggapai CINTA akan membawa kesan secara tidak langsung kepada peribadi diri. Tahap kekuatan dalaman jiwa terpulang pada diri untuk menghadapi konflik perasaan yang sentiasa membayangi diri. Barangkali banyak sudah muncul watak Laila Majnun yang tidak diketahui umum. Dan barangkali juga dia berada di kanan dan kiri anda? Pandanglah manusia di sekeliling dengan mata hati dan mata kasar. Pasti anda akan temui sesuatu yang baru. Dan mungkin memberi makna. Tanyalah pada hati, renunglah pada sebutir bintang. Di manakah letaknya CINTA dalam kehidupan? Pandanglah pada senja, nescaya apa tersembunyi memberi makna. Dan kita pasti berasa akan NILAI SEBUAH CINTA…

~ Anonymous Author (http://cintadearhaniey.wordpress.com/)

Peluang Bisnis Online, Forex Trading (Valas Trading) di Marketiva

FOREX TRADING (valas trading) merupakan pasar terbesar di dunia diukur berdasarkan nilai total transaksi. Menurut survei BIS (Bank International for Settlement – bank sentralnya bank-bank sentral seluruh dunia), yang dilakukan pada akhir tahun 2004, nilai transaksi forex mencapai USD 1,900miliar per hari. Dengan demikian, prospek investasi di perdagangan forex adalah sangat bagus.

Pasar valas/forex berjalan selama 24 jam, berputar mulai dari pasar New Zaeland & Australia yang berlangsung pukul 05.00–14.00 WIB, terus ke pasar Asia yaitu Jepang & Singapura yang berlangsung pukul 07.00–16.00 WIB, ke pasar Eropa yaitu Jerman & Inggris yang berlangsung pukul 13.00–22.00, sampai ke pasar Amerika yang berlangsung pukul 20.30–10.30. Dalam perkembangan sejarahnya, bank sentral milik negara-negara dengan cadangan mata uang asing yang besar sekalipun dapat dikalahkan oleh kekuatan pasar forex/valas yang bebas.

Forex trading (valas trading) saat ini sudah sangat mudah untuk dilakukan oleh siapapun dan dari manapun. Dengan modal komputer yang tersambung ke internet, kita sudah bisa melakukan forex trading (valas trading) baik dari rumah, kantor, warnet, dan darimana saja yang penting ada fasilitas sambungan internet. Dengan mendaftar di Marketiva, Anda tidak perlu lagi memikirkan modal untuk melakukan forex trading (valas trading), begitu daftar langsung bisa trading karena Anda mendapatkan cash reward $5 real money untuk live trading dan $10,000 virtual money untuk simulasi dengan kondisi pasar yang sesungguhnya. Belajar forex trading (valas trading) dengan metoda belajar sambil praktek akan membuat Anda lebih cepat memahami segala hal tentang forex trading (valas trading).

Transaksi real maupun belajar Forex Trading (valas trading) di Marketiva adalah pilihan terbaik bagi para calon trader dalam mengembangkan ilmu, maupun bagi trader profesional dalam bertransaksi forex trading (valas trading).

KEUNGGULAN
Marketiva provides spot forex on major currency pairs and crosses; $5 cash reward you can start trading right away; tight spreads from 3 pips; trading on 1% margin; virtual and live desks within one account; latest news, alerts on market events, signals, no market commissions; zero-interest on open positions, 24-hour support, chat channels, the most sophisticated and easy-to-use forex charting tool; ability to trade from the charts and the best forex trading software available!

Untuk bisa memulai transaksi sekaligus belajar forex trading (valas trading) di Marketiva, ikutilah langkah-langkah berikut secara berurutan.

MENDAFTAR
Untuk mendaftar, silakan buka website Marketiva, setelah terbuka, klik Open Account, isilah data diri Anda secara lengkap. Untuk field dengan tanda * (bintang) harus Anda isi, yang lain boleh Anda kosongkan.

Username: pilihlah username yang indah, karena akan Anda gunakan untuk chatting dengan sesama trader, misalnya: cinta, cantik, handsome, dsb.
Password: minimal 8 karakter gabungan huruf dan angka.
First Name: isi nama depan Anda
Last Name: isi nama belakang Anda, jika nama Anda hanya terdiri dari satu suku kata, masukkan nama Anda tersebut di field First Name dan Last Name. Contoh: jika nama Anda adalah Fitri, maka masukkan First Name: Fitri, Last Name: Fitri.
Untuk data alamat isikan sesuai dengan KTP Anda.
E-mail: diisi alamat e-mail Anda yang masih aktif.

PERHATIAN: Seluruh data diri yang Anda isikan harus sama dengan KTP, karena akan dilakukan proses verifikasi untuk bisa melakukan transaksi forex trading (trading valas).

Setelah selesai mengisi, klik tombol Continue>

User Template: pilih Standar Forex Trader
Coupon: boleh dikosongkan
Recovery Question: pilih yang paling cocok dengan Anda, misalnya Anda memiliki kucing dengan nama manis, maka pilih: What is your pet's name?
Recovery Answer: dalam contoh ini maka jawaban anda adalah: manis

Setelah selesai mengisi, klik tombol next>

Berilah tanda chek pada pilihan: I have read, understood, and agree with the Service Agreement under which Marketiva Corporation provides it services and products. I have also read and understood the Risk Disclosure statement and I am willing and able to assume such risks.

Setelah itu klik tombol [finish]. Maka proses pendaftaran Anda sudah selesai.

VERIFIKASI IDENTITAS DIRI
Setelah Anda mendaftar, maka Anda perlu mengupload data diri Anda untuk diverifikasi, Anda hanya diizinkan membuka satu account. Anda tidak bisa melakukan penarikan dana sebelum melakukan identifikasi, dan ada kemungkinan account Anda di-suspend (dibekukan) jika Anda menggunakan komputer dengan IP address yang sama dengan trader lain. Untuk itu segeralah melakukan verifikasi identitas diri, berikut data yang diperlukan:

Image ID: Scan KTP/SIM/KTM atau kartu identitas lain yang ada foto dan nama Anda tertera di kartu identitas tersebut.
Image Adress: Scan data tagihan yang alamatnya sama dengan KTP/SIM/KTM Anda, misal tagihan listrik, tagihan telepon, rekening bank dll, data di tagihan ini digunakan untuk konfirmasi alamat.
Scan data harus berwarna dan masing-masing file ukurannya maksimal 100kb, jadi sewaktu scan, resolusi di set ke 72-100 dpi saja.
Bila Anda tidak mempunya data tagihan yang ada nama dan alamat Anda disitu, maka anda boleh mengupload scan ktp saja, scan bagian depan KTP sebagai ID image, bagian belakang sebagai Address image.
Upload scan data tersebut di sini

Setelah mengupload data, melaporlah ke live support yang ada di situs Marketiva. Beberapa saat kemudin Anda akan diberitahu bahwa data diri Anda telah selesai diverifikasi.

MEMBUKA ACCOUNT E-GOLD
Proses deposit dan withdrawl termudah adalah dengan e-gold, silakan Anda baca secara lengkap tata cara membuka e-gold, klik disini. PASTIKAN: Nama lengkap Anda di account e-gold harus sama dengan nama lengkap di Marketiva, jika tidak sama maka Anda akan mengalami kesulitan dalam proses deposit dan withdrawl.

MENDOWNLOAD DAN MENGINSTAL STREAMSTER
Untuk memulai transaksi forex trading (valas trading) di Marketiva, Anda memerlukan software Streamster, silakan Download dengan cara menekan tombol get streamster di bagian kanan atas website Marketiva dan install di komputer Anda, kemudian jalankan program Marketiva, Login dengan username dan password yang baru saja Anda buat. Setelah selesai Anda download, double klik file hasil download Anda tersebut untuk menginstallnya di komputer Anda, ikuti langkah-langkah yang diminta.

LOGIN DAN MULAI BERTRANSAKSI
Setelah Anda login masuklah ke room chat international dan indonesia, caranya klik tombol groups di bagian atas jendela streamster, tunggu sebentar sampai ditampilkan daftar room yang ada, pilih international dan indonesia, klik OK, maka otomatis Anda masuk room international dan indonesia. Untuk mulai bertransaksi, bertanyalah kepada support personel dari Marketiva menggunakan bahasa indonesia, boleh di room international maupun di room indonesia. Support personel adalah orang dengan nick yang ada huruf ' i ' (information) di depan nicknya, mereka akan dengan senang hati membantu Anda memahami cara-cara bertransaksi di Marketiva.

MEMBUKA ACCOUNT E-GOLD EXCHANGE
Bila Anda ingin mencairkan e-gold ke dalam bentuk mata uang Rupiah, yang perlu Anda lakukan adalah menjual kembali e-gold Anda ke merchant e-gold di Indonesia contohnya indochanger. Dalam transaksi tersebut Anda akan mentransfer e-gold ke rekening merchant dan Anda akan menerima uang dalam bentuk Rupiah (biasanya melalui ATM atau transfer bank, disarankan Bank Central Asia). Untuk mengisi e-gold, yang Anda lakukan adalah langkah sebaliknya, Anda setorkan Rupiah ke merchant, dan merchant akan mengisi account e-gold Anda. Silakan buka account e-gold exchange Anda di indochanger.

Demikian uraian singkat Step by Step Forex Trading (Valas Trading) di Marketiva. Selamat mencoba, Good Luck.

Peluang Bisnis Online untuk Mencari Uang Gratis di Internet

Peluang Bisnis Online untuk Mencari Uang Gratis di Internet

Mencari uang di internet sungguh menyenangkan, sudah mudah, bisa dikerjain dari rumah, murah, dan berkah. Internet adalah asset anda yang sangat berharga. Internet sungguh-sungguh bisa menghasilkan uang hanya jika anda tahu caranya.

He he he, kata-katanya seperti iklan nih. Tapi emang bener sih, sudah beberapa bulan ini saya menghasilkan uang hanya dari rumah, semua dikerjakan melaui internet. Beragam cara deh untuk bisa menghasilkan uang dari internet, dan berita baiknya, semuanya bisa anda dapatkan gratis. Semua ada, mulai dari mencari kerja, uang gratis, barang gratis, email gratis, pokoknya yang serba gratis, sampai jodoh pun bisa anda cari di internet.

Satu hal yang perlu anda perhatikan, sebisa mungkin carilah program-program penghasil uang di internet itu yang benar-benar gratis. Karena ini dunia maya, jika anda mencari uang kemudian ada persyaratan untuk membayar terlebih dahulu, untuk apa? Ya kalau program itu benar-benar menghasilkan uang, kalau tidak? Kan sayang, anda sudah kehilangan waktu tenaga dan juga uang.

Berita bagusnya, sangat banyak kegiatan-kegiatan di internet yang bisa menghasilkan uang, anda hanya perlu menyaringnya saja, mana yang betul-betul menghasilkan uang, dan mana yang hanya bohongan saja.

Pengalaman pribadi saya berikut ini semoga membantu anda untuk bisa mulai mencari uang di internet dengan gratis, sementara saya hanya merekomendasikan program-program yang benar-benar menghasilkan uang tanpa modal alias gratis, program-program berikut yang saya tawarkan kepada anda adalah benar-benar pengalaman pribadi dan sudah terbukti kehandalannya.

Berikut program-program pencari uang gratis di internet yang boleh anda coba. Dengan bukti nyata saya sendiri sebagai pelakunya, anda layak mencobanya, silakan coba mana yang paling sesuai dengan anda. Semoga sukses.

1. Trading Valas
Sejak bulan Agustus 2005 saya mengikuti program trading valas online, dan sungguh-sungguh gratis serta benar-benar terpercaya. Saya sangat merekomendasikan program ini untuk anda.

Informasi program selengkapnya bisa anda dapatkan di: http://forex-trading-valas.web.id Untuk mendaftar langsung di situsnya, silakan kunjungi: Marketiva.com

Anda tidak perlu melakukan setoran awal untuk bisa melakukan trading. Saat anda membuka account baru, kami memberikan reward sebesar $5 yang bisa langsung anda gunakan untuk trading. Anda juga mendapatkan uang virtual sebesar $10000 untuk berlatih trading. Untuk membuka account baru silakan isi formulir dengan lengkap di halaman open account.

Marketiva provides spot forex on major currency pairs and crosses; $5 cash reward you can start trading right away; tight spreads from 3 pips; trading on 1% margin; virtual and live desks within one account; latest news, alerts on market events, signals, no market commissions; zero-interest on open positions, 24-hour support, chat channels, the most sophisticated and easy-to-use forex charting tool; ability to trade from the charts and the best forex trading software available, live support dalam bahasa english, indonesia, china, arab, malaysia, rusia, dsb.

Untuk membuat account baru, silahkan isi form di halaman open account. Proses ini hanya membutuhkan waktu kurang dari 3 menit. Anda juga akan mendapatkan reward $5 gratis dan uang virtual untuk berlatih trading sebesar $10.000. Sebaiknya anda memasukkan data personal dengan sebenar-benarnya, karena user yang memasukkan data palsu atau membuka dua account yang sama akan diwajibkan untuk memberikan bukti-bukti keabsahan tambahan.

Anda bisa trade dengan $1 pada platform kami, dan bahkan anda bisa trade dengan dana yang jauh lebih kecil pada account anda. Sebagai contoh, apabila anda memiliki $1 anda dapat membuka satu posisi pada eur/usd dengan quantity 10, yang akan membutuhkan 10 cent margin pada account anda. Anda mendapatkan reward $5 ketika pertama kali membuat account, maka dengan dana tersebut anda bisa trade quantity 200 atau 300.

Platform trading kami mengizinkan anda untuk menentukan berapapun quantity yang ingin anda tradingkan pada form order anda, termasuk 10000 (mini) atau 100000 (standard). Apabila anda memasukkan quantity 1, maka margin yang diperlukan adalah 1 cent (1%). Tidak ada batasan dalam penentuan lot, anda dapat memasukkan nilai quantity dengan angka berapa saja: 1, 5, 457, 7864, 10000, 100000 dan quantity berapapun yang anda inginkan.

Kami menyediakan layanan spot forex trading untuk pasangan mata uang berikut: EUR/USD, USD/JPY, GBP/USD, USD/CHF, USD/CAD, AUD/USD, NZD/USD, EUR/JPY, EUR/GBP, EUR/CHF, GBP/JPY, AUD/JPY, CHF/JPY, GBP/CHF, EUR/CAD, EUR/AUD, AUD/CAD. Kedepannya mungkin akan ada instrument lain yang akan ditambahkan.

Kami tidak membedakan antara account demo dan account live. Ketika anda membuka sebuah account, anda akan mendapatkan satu live trading desk dan satu virtual trading desk dalam account anda tersebut. Anda dapat menggunakan keduanya kapan saja. Membuat account baru adalah gratis dan bahkan anda akan mendapatkan reward sebesar $5, oleh karena itu anda bisa langsung melakukan trading pada pasar yang sesungguhnya segera setelah account anda selesai dibuat. Untuk membuka account anda, silakan klik disini.

2. E-gold
E-gold adalah sebuah mata uang seperti halnya rupiah dan dollars, namun bukan merupakan mata uang nasional suatu negara. Ini berarti tidak ada suatu negara yang mengeluarkan uang kertas ataupun logam dalam mata uang e-gold. Malahan setiap transaksi dilakukan secara elektronis melalui internet, tidak terbatas oleh letak geografis suatu negara.

E-gold pada dasarnya mempunyai fungsi yang sama dengan e-mail. Bedanya e-mail adalah sebagai pengganti surat konvensional yang dikirimkan dengan perangko melalui kantor pos, sedangkan e-gold adalah sebagai pengganti (alternatif) untuk transfer uang ataupun pembayaran yang biasa dilakukan melalui perantara bank (ATM, transfer antar bank, bank draft, dan pos wesel).

Anda akan menerima uang bisa mereferensikan ke orang lain, dan anggota anda tersebut melakukan transaksi.

Membuat account E-Gold adalah gratis dan tidak memerlukan setoran awal. Silakan buka account E-Gold anda sekarang juga.

Keterangan lengkap tata cara pembuatan account bisa anda dapatkan di: http://jual-beli-e-gold.blogspot.com/

3. E-gold exchanger
Bila anda ingin mencairkan e-gold kedalam mata uang Rupiah, yang perlu anda lakukan adalah menjual kembali e-gold anda sesuai kebutuhan. Jual beli e-gold dapat dilakukan di INDOCHANGER dan anda akan menerima uang dalam bentuk Rupiah (melalui ATM atau Transfer antar Bank)

Anda akan menerima komisi jika mengajak orang untuk transaksi di exchanger ini, segera buka account, gratis dan bagus. Buka account anda sekarang juga tempat jual beli e-gold terpercaya: INDOCHANGER.

Keterangan lengkap tata cara pembuatan account bisa anda dapatkan di: http://jual-beli-e-gold.blogspot.com/

4. Google Adsense
Sudah menjadi legenda orang mencari uang secara gratis di google adsense, perusahaan terpercaya google.com yang menyelenggarakannya. Gratis dan sangat bagus. Silakan anda mendaftar, keterangan lengkap silakan klik banner di google adsense di samping artikel ini. Dapatkan e-book gratis saya jika anda mendaftar atas referensi saya. Silakan hubungi saya melalui

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